PH from different clinical groups is possible in patients with CTD. For example, in a group of patients with SSc of ≥3 years of duration and a diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) <60% of normal value, PH was found in 31% of patients, of whom 60% had PAH, 27% had PH due to lung disease, and 21% had PH due to left heart disease [15].

Early recognition of PAH in patients is particularly important because of the potential for targeted therapy. It is a clinical condition characterized by the presence of precapillary PH that is not the result of lung disease, CTEPH, or other intermittent causes of precapillary PH (clinical classification group 5). PAH includes a variety of forms with similar clinical presentation (Table 1, Group 1 PH) and similar pathomorphological changes in the pulmonary microcirculation [13].

In the group of patients with PAH (mPAP ≥25 mm Hg) in Poland (n = 970), idiopathic or inherited PAH (48%), PAH associated with congenital heart disease (37%), and PAH associated with CTDs (CTD-PAH; 14%) were most commonly diagnosed [16–18]. Patients with CTD accounted for 30% of all patients with PAH in the Scottish registry, 25% of all in the US registry, and 15% of all in the French registry [19].

SSc is the most common systemic CTD in patients with PAH. Among patients with CTD-PAH in Poland, the most common diagnoses are SSc (48%), MCTD (17%), RA (11%), and SLE (10%) [16]. The incidence of PAH in patients with SSc in registries from various countries was estimated between 2.9% and 19% [20, 21]. The risk of developing PAH in these patients increases with disease duration. In a 15-year follow-up, PAH was diagnosed in 17% of patients with the limited form of SSc and in 10% with the diffuse form of SSc [21, 22]. The incidence of PAH was not assessed in Polish SSc patients. However, taking the number of patients diagnosed with SSc-PAH and the number of patients with SSc (according to various sources from nearly 4000 to 10000) into account, it can be estimated that PAH is diagnosed in no more than 1.6% of patients with SSc [23, 24]. This probably reflects inadequate screening for PAH in Polish patients with SSc.

The prognosis of SSc-PAH is poor and depends on the functional class at the time of diagnosis. In a French registry in which 72% of patients were diagnosed with World Health Organization (WHO) functional class III or IV, survival at 1, 3, and 5 years of follow-up was 87%, 55%, and 35%, respectively [25]. In contrast, in the PHAROS registry, in which the majority (59%) of patients had a diagnosis of PAH with WHO functional class I or II, the survival rates were 95%, 75%, and 63%, respectively [26].

Section summary

• • CTD is the third most common cause of PAH in Poland. Patients with SSc are at the greatest risk of developing PAH.
• • The prevalence of PAH in patients with SSc in Poland is lower than in Western European countries; therefore, systematic screening of this group of patients is necessary.
• • The prognosis of patients with PAH associated with SSc is poor but improves with early diagnosis.

The role of the rheumatologist in the diagnosis of pulmonary arterial hypertension

PH can develop in the course of most CTDs but is by far the most common in SSc and SSc-related diseases such as MCTD and some forms of myositis [27]. The most common form is PAH, which affects approximately 8%–15% of SSc patients [27, 28]. The multi-organ nature of CTDs also increases susceptibility to other forms of PH. Thromboembolic PH may occur (e.g., with the antiphospholipid syndrome), as can PH resulting from pulmonary veno-occlusive disease seen in SSc. Mixed forms of PH are also possible, e.g., the coexistence of PAH with PH in patients with interstitial lung disease or heart disease [27]. Table 2 summarized the prevalence of PH in patients with various CTDs. It is worth noting that several studies provided different results due to various methodologies of PH detection, criteria of CTDs, and different populations of investigated patients.

PH is always associated with a worse prognosis, including a higher risk of death. The prognosis of patients with PAH in CTD depends on the underlying disease, with the highest risk of death found in patients with SSc [15, 27]. The analysis of the American REVEAL registry (the Registry to Evaluate Early and Long-term Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Disease Management) showed that one-year survival in patients with idiopathic PAH was 93% compared to 86% in patients with PAH in the course of CTD, including 82% in SSc patients with PAH, 88% in MCTD patients with PAH, 94% in SLE patients with PAH, and 96% in RA patients with PAH [29].

Due to its relatively frequent occurrence and progressive course, PAH is now the second most common cause of death in SSc patients, next to interstitial lung disease [30]. The prognosis of PAH depends on its clinical stage. Early diagnosis of PAH is therefore crucial to improve prognosis, especially since drugs are available that can slow disease progression.

Diagnosis of PAH in the early stages is not easy because of the low sensitivity and specificity of clinical signs. In the early stages of the disease, the patient may not feel any discomfort, especially considering the fact that the physical function of patients is often limited due to the musculoskeletal complaints that are very common in CTD. Secondly, the patient’s adaptation to the chronically developing disease process means that symptoms are not felt until very advanced stages. Thirdly, decreased exercise tolerance in the absence of very discrete PH physical symptoms may be overlooked or misinterpreted as an expression of CTD or age, especially in patients over 50 years old. Therefore, early diagnosis of PH requires vigilance on the part of physicians caring for patients with CTD and regular evaluation of these patients for PH.

In clinical practice, it may be helpful to know the profile of patients at higher risk of developing PH. As mentioned above, PAH is particularly common in SSc and CTD patients with similar clinical presentations (MCTD, overlap syndromes with SSc). Risk factors for PAH in patients with SSc are listed in Table 3.

It is worth noting that PAH develops relatively frequently in patients with skin lesions limited to the distal parts of the extremities, often only the fingers (so-called sclerodactyly or simply swollen fingers), which can easily be overlooked by both the patient and the medical staff. Sometimes exertional dyspnea is the reason for seeking help and making the diagnosis of CTD. Unfortunately, at this stage, lung disease (PAH and/or interstitial lung disease) is usually already very advanced. Therefore, all patients with Raynaud’s syndrome (present in almost all SSc patients from the onset of the disease), SSc-specific antibodies (especially ACA) and/or SSc-specific microangiopathy present, and even discrete skin lesions should be evaluated for PH. Regarding telangiectasias, it is worth remembering that those typical of SSc have a regular shape (round or oval) and are usually observed on the face, hands, and/or neckline.

International guidelines recommend regular screening of patients with SSc and SSc-associated diseases for PH [21, 31–33]. Echocardiography plays a major role in screening. The importance of this test in the diagnosis of PH in patients with CTD is discussed in a separate section. Unfortunately, in practice, it is not always possible to evaluate all patients annually with echocardiography. The test can also produce false-negative results, especially in patients with early PH without tricuspid regurgitation, which prevents the estimation of right heart pressures.

The DETECT algorithm proved to be more sensitive compared with the echo study (evaluation according to European Society of Cardiology [ESC], and European Respiratory Society [ERS] guidelines): the sensitivity of the DETECT algorithm was 96% compared with 71% for the echo study. Similarly, the negative predictive value of the DETECT algorithm was higher (98%) compared with the echo study (89%). The DETECT calculator is available online on the website and as an app.

According to recent recommendations, patients with SSc and other CTDs with features of SSc (sclerodactyly, characteristic microangiopathy, and/or antibodies) and DLCO values <80% of normal values should undergo annual screening for PH [32]. As illustrated in Figure 2, patients with suspected PH based on the DETECT algorithm (DETECT score >35 points) or echocardiography with forced vital capacity (FVC) / DLCO >1.6 and/or NT-proBNP levels exceeding the upper limit of normal 2 times (after excluding other causes) should be referred to centers specializing in diagnosing PH for right heart catheterization.

Clinical studies suggest that the use of PH screening programs in practice enables earlier diagnosis and treatment of PAH, which in turn improves prognosis in this group of patients [21, 26, 32–33].

Section summary

• • Risk factors for PAH in patients with SSc include limited SSc, presence of ACA antibodies, presence of telangiectasias, longer duration of disease, older age, and elevated uric acid levels.
• • Screening for PH should be based on a comprehensive assessment that includes risk factors, clinical presentation, and additional test results, including pulmonary function tests (FVC, DLCO), NT-proBNP/BNP, and uric acid levels.
• • The DETECT algorithm facilitates the selection of patients who require echocardiography and right heart catheterization and increases the sensitivity of diagnosing PAH in SSc patients.
• • Patients with PH in the course of CTD should be cared for by a multi-specialist team consisting of a rheumatologist and a cardiologist.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension in connective tissue diseases: the cardiologist’s role in diagnosis

The primary goals of cardiological diagnosis in a patient with suspected PAH are to determine the indications for invasive diagnosis (right heart catheterization), to establish the diagnosis of PH and its type, and to determine the possibility of including PAH-targeted therapy, which depends on confirmation of PAH or CTEPH.

An established diagnosis of SSc or SSc-related diseases is a strong risk factor for the occurrence of PAH with an extremely unfavorable prognosis and increases the risk of deep vein thrombosis severalfold, which can lead to CTEPH [34]. The coexistence of interstitial lung disease in the setting of CTD (including capillary and small pulmonary vein pathology) is a problem typical for SSc, which may exclude patients from PAH-targeted therapies. Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) <70% (obturation) and FVC <70% (restriction) are taken as criteria supporting a predominant role of pulmonary etiology.

The diagnosis of PAH in a patient with CTD may follow two diagnostic pathways. The first pathway applies to the evaluation of a patient with symptoms suggestive of PAH (which are difficult to distinguish from symptoms of pulmonary complications of SSc). The second pathway applies to the evaluation of a patient without specific symptoms undergoing annual screening for CTD from the SSc spectrum.

The evaluation of a symptomatic patient with CTD does not differ from the general criteria used in PAH. Typical symptoms warrant urgent echocardiography with the assessment of the likelihood of PH and its clinical implications. An asymptomatic patient should be referred to a cardiologist for echocardiography as part of a screening program either once per year (if an echocardiographic screening strategy is chosen and echocardiography is readily available in a center specializing in the assessment of right-sided cardiac circulation), or in the event of a positive screening test if another screening strategy is used (e.g., FVC/DLCO ratio >1.6 and/or NT-proBNP concentration >2 times normal; DETECT algorithm with the index after stage I more than 300 points).

Echocardiography is the primary noninvasive method for determining the risk of PH. Its evaluation requires measurement of maximum tricuspid regurgitation velocity and phenotypic features of cardiac imaging in PH. The examination should be performed by a center specializing in the assessment of the pulmonary circulation in optimal technical quality, using the projections optimized for assessment of the right-sided cardiac cavities [35]. The evaluation principles are shown in Table 4.

In a symptomatic patient with CTD, a finding of intermediate or high probability is a relative (recommendation class IIa/B) or an absolute (I/C) indication, respectively, for a full PH evaluation in a specialized center with consideration of right heart catheterization. In an asymptomatic patient with SSc, a finding of intermediate probability is a relative indication for right heart catheterization (recommendation class IIa/B), whereas a high probability with any CTD is an absolute (I/C) indication for a full PH evaluation in a specialized center including right heart catheterization.

If echocardiography is used as the second stage of the DETECT algorithm, echocardiographic assessment of the maximal (end-systolic) right atrial area assessed in the four-chamber view and the velocity of the maximal tricuspid regurgitant return wave is crucial. If the threshold of 35 points is exceeded in the second stage of the algorithm, right heart catheterization at an expert PH center is indicated.

In most patients, pulmonary ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy, computed tomography pulmonary angiography, or conventional pulmonary cineangiography during right heart catheterization is necessary to rule out a pulmonary artery thromboembolism component regardless of the patient’s history. High resolution computed tomography of the lungs aids in the differential diagnosis of uncommon pulmonary capillary hemoangiomatosis/pulmonary venoocclusive disease, which require different therapeutic approaches. Right heart catheterization is the definitive diagnostic method to establish the hemodynamic indices necessary to establish the diagnosis of PAH (see the section on classification and criteria) and the decision to initiate targeted therapies. These indices include mPAP, PVR (using reversibility tests after administration of nitric oxide or prostacyclin analogs), and possibly the trans-pulmonary gradient. In borderline cases with difficult differentiation of precapillary and postcapillary components, additional measurement of PCWP during exercise or after fluid loading may be performed. Existing treatment recommendations have been established in studies of patients who meet the traditional definition of PH, i.e., mPAP ≥25 mm Hg.

Section summary

• • Asymptomatic patients with CTD on the SSc spectrum should undergo annual screening for PH, and in Polish conditions, echocardiography may be the preferred, most universal method (recommended regardless of the DLCO result). In other types of CTD, echocardiography is performed when PH is clinically suspected.
• • The decision on whether indications warrant right heart catheterization to establish a conclusive diagnosis is made by the cardiologist, and the examination should be performed in expert PH centers. The DETECT algorithm is useful in patient selection for right heart catheterization.
• • The final determination of the type of PH and the appropriateness of inclusion in a treatment program for patients with CTD should be undertaken in expert PH centers.

Treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension

Patients with CTD who are diagnosed with PAH should be treated the same as all other patients with category I PH, according to current guidelines. This is because in most of the large, randomized trials conducted to register drugs for PAH, approximately 30% of patients were CTD patients [31, 36]. The only difference is that high-dose calcium antagonists are not recommended in patients with CTD-PAH, as a positive response has been reported in less than 1% of patients [37]. Anticoagulants are also not used due to the unfavorable risk/benefit ratio of bleeding [38].

Treatment of PAH is always done at a referral center. There are currently 24 PAH treatment referral centers for adults and nine pediatric centers in Poland (PAH treatment centers in Poland: www.skp.ptkardio.pl/osrodki_dorosli, www.skp.ptkardio.pl/osrodki-dzieci).

General recommendations

• • Encourage patients to engage in symptom-limited physical activity and supervised rehabilitation.
• • Influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations.
• • Iron suplementation should be considered in patients with iron deficiency: serum ferritin <100 μg/l, or ferritin between 100–299 μg/l and transferrin saturation <20%.
• • Diuretics in patients with fluid retention.
• • Oxygen therapy: when arterial blood oxygen partial pressure is <60 mm Hg or when arterial blood oxygen saturation is <91%, oxygen is recommended for at least 15 hours per day.

Targeted pharmacotherapy (specific to pulmonary arterioles)

In the treatment of PAH, three groups of drugs are used:

• • Drugs that affect the endothelin pathway: endothelin receptor antagonists, which include ambrisentan, bosentan, and macitentan
• • Drugs that affect the nitric oxide pathway: phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors, which include sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil, and guanylyl cyclase stimulators, which include riociguat
• • Drugs that affect the prostacyclin pathway: prostacyclins, which include beraprost, epoprostenol, iloprost, treprostinil, and IP prostacyclin receptor agonists, which include selexipag

Within the National Health Fund drug program for the treatment of PAH in Poland, bosentan, macitentan, sildenafil, riociguat, epoprostenol (iv), iloprost (inhaled), treprostinil (sc), and selexipag can be prescribed. All these drugs have vasodilatory effects and lower pulmonary artery pressure; however, they also have antiproliferative effects that reduce the proliferation of endothelial cells and pulmonary arterial smooth muscle. Parenteral prostacyclins have the strongest effect; in addition, they are the most potent endogenous inhibitors of platelet aggregation [31].

The choice of initial therapy, as well as the timing of escalation of therapy in long-term follow-up, is based on an assessment of the risk of death within one year. Several risk stratification tools exist, including the REVEAL 2 scale [39], risk assessment based on the Swedish [40], French [41], COMPERA [42] registry, and ESC risk tables [31]. In Poland, the ESC risk stratification table is most commonly used (Table 5). The risk of death is assessed at baseline and at 4- to 6-month intervals thereafter, and considers a dataset derived from clinical assessment, six-minute walking test, ergospirometry, biochemical markers, echocardiography, and right heart catheterization. Although CTD-PAH is a more aggressive disease than idiopathic PAH, this method of risk stratification has also been validated in this group of patients [43].

The earlier therapy is started, the better the results of PAH treatment. This applies to all patients with PAH, including patients with CTD-PAH. In the French Registry, 3-year survival in patients with SSc was 80% when treatment started in NYHA class II, 72% in class III, and 30% in class IV [43]. There is also evidence that, in patients with CTD-PAH, survival is better when treatment is initiated as a result of screening than when diagnosis and treatment occur due to the severity of clinical symptoms [44].

According to the ESC and World Hypertension Forum recommendations, at low or intermediate risk of death, therapy should be initiated with two oral drugs from two different groups (endothelin receptor antagonist + phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor) [31, 45]. The National Health Fund drug program does not reimburse this course of action: the therapy has to start with one drug, but if it proves ineffective, another drug can be added. Expert groups of both societies contributing to this statement suggest eliminating this gap in the therapeutic program, as it does not comply with current ESC/ERS guidelines, while no longer being justified by financial reasons, as oral generic ET-1 receptor antagonists and PDE5i are currently available at a low cost. When the patient is initially at high risk, combination therapy, including prostacyclin, is applied.

The essence of managing a patient with PAH is to maintain assessed parameters within a low-risk-of-death profile, which is synonymous with a good prognosis. If some of these parameters fall into the intermediate or high-risk profile, it means that the patient is inadequately treated and the therapy needs to be intensified by the addition of another drug, change to a more potent one, or increase of the dose [46].

If triple-drug therapy is ineffective, patients should be referred for lung transplantation. Lung transplantation is not contraindicated in patients with CTD-PAH [47], although indications and contraindications must include evaluation of other organs that may be involved, particularly the gastrointestinal tract (reflux disease and intestinal disease), heart, kidney, and skin [47].

Despite targeted pharmacotherapy, the prognosis of patients with CTD, especially those with SSc and related diseases, is worse than that of patients with idiopathic PAH [48, 49]. A 2021 meta-analysis of 12 randomized trials and 19 registries with at least 30-patient subgroups with CTD-PAH from 2000 to 2019 showed a slightly lower mortality rate in patients with CTD, albeit still higher than in other groups of patients with PAH. The 3-year survival was lower in patients with CTD-PAH vs all patients: 62% vs 72%, respectively. The 3-year survival of patients with CTD-PAH after 2010 was better than before 2010 at 73% vs 65%, respectively [50].

In a randomized trial involving 111 patients with SSc, 3-month treatment with intravenous epoprostenol infusion improved physical performance, hemodynamic parameters, and functional class [51]. Subgroup analyses of patients with CTD-PAH or SSc from randomized trials in which sildenafil, tadalafil, bosentan, ambrisentan, macitentan, subcutaneous treprostinil, riociguat, and selexipag were administered showed a beneficial effect of these drugs, although the improvement was not always statistically significant. Some of these studies showed that the treatment effect was smaller in patients with CTD-PAH than in patients with idiopathic PAH [52]. This could be because CTDs, which are systemic diseases, cause damage to multiple organs [27]. The small size of the CTD-PAH subgroups may also have had some influence on these results, hampering the achievement of statistically significant results. A common endpoint in these studies was the six-minute walking test, which may show worse results in patients with CTD because of the muscular or joint problems or fatigue associated with the underlying disease [27]. In contrast, since 2013, when the SERAPHIN, GRIPHON, and AMBITION trials were released, an analysis of subgroups of patients with CTD-PAH showed a significant reduction in the composite endpoint. In these studies, the endpoint included morbidity and mortality, and the time from study drug inclusion to the first incident (death, worsening, hospitalization for prostacyclin inclusion, lung transplantation, or septostomy) was assessed. In addition, in the SERAPHIN and GRIPHON trials, 64% and 80%, respectively, were already receiving PAH-targeted therapy at baseline, so the addition of an investigational drug was often a combination therapy [53-56]. The AMBITION study additionally showed that, as in the overall group, in patients with CTD and in patients with SSc, initial treatment with tadalafil and bosentan was more beneficial than initial monotherapy [53]. The aforementioned 2021 meta-analysis, based on five randomized trials evaluating time to incident mortality/morbidity, showed the same 36% reduction in the risk of incident mortality/morbidity in treated vs placebo in the whole group as well as the CTD-PAH subgroup [46].

Section summary

• • PAH in patients with CTD and especially in those with SSc has a high mortality rate.
• • Prognosis can be improved by the earliest possible inclusion of targeted therapy, preferably based on screening.
• • This treatment should be aggressive and include initial combination therapy.
• • Targeted therapy given to patients with CTD-PAH improves the quality of life, physical function, and hemodynamics and reduces mortality/morbidity.

Does diagnosis of pulmonary arterial hypertension change the management of a patient with connective tissue disease?

The causes and mechanisms of CTD development are unknown, so treatment is limited to immunosuppressive drugs and symptomatic treatment of organ lesions. The essence of autoimmunization is the generation of immunity against one’s own antigens. In the absence of the ability to correct impaired immune tolerance, treatment comes down to reducing the overall immune response. The drugs used combine immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative effects, and delineating these actions is difficult. If a patient with CTD has PAH, the following issues regarding the interrelationship of CTD and PAH treatment should be considered:

• • Does a decrease in the overall activity of the disease process in CTD reduce the occurrence and severity of PAH?
• • Can drugs used in patients with CTD (e.g., symptomatic — affecting organ changes) exacerbate (or even trigger) the onset of PAH in this group of patients?
• • Can drugs used in patients with CTD interact with the treatment of PAH, and thus require modification of their simultaneous co-administration?

The therapeutic problems presented have no clear answer.

The incidence of PAH in CTD patients has been presented in earlier sections of this paper. There is a prevailing belief that the development of PAH is an expression of the severity of the disease, but there is no clear association with other indicators of disease process activity. Moreover, the clinical presentation of CTD is highly variable. Despite the lack of studies, however, it is plausible that the development of PAH shares a common pathogenesis with other organ lesions, and therefore, early and prolonged reduction in disease activity is beneficial to pulmonary circulation. However, detection of PAH usually occurs so late that reduction of disease activity alone is not sufficient to control PAH. A case of resolution of PAH and interstitial lung disease in an SLE patient after treatment with mycophenolate mofetil was described [57]. This is consistent with animal model studies in which the active metabolite of mycophenolate mofetil has been shown to inhibit pulmonary artery wall remodeling in rats. Similarly, intensive treatment of SLE with cyclophosphamide and corticosteroids may be associated with a reduction in PAH [58]. On the other hand, it has been reported that PH can be associated with an elevated level of mineralocorticoids and medication against mineralocorticoid activity is beneficial. Administration of glucocorticoids can exert some mineralocorticoid activity and such drug action should be considered. In most cases, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive action of glucocorticoids predominates their mineralocorticoid activity.

Administration of non-steroidal antirheumatic drugs is associated with inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. It may an be additional unfavorable factor in patients with PH, thus should be considered in a long-term therapeutic strategy.

There is no reliable evidence indicating lung injury and the occurrence of PAH in patients treated with immunosuppressive drugs. The few case reports refer to infectious complications that damage the lungs and may promote secondary development of PAH, rather than a direct effect of immunosuppressants causing PAH. Single case reports suggest that the disease-modifying drug leflunomide may induce PAH. Leflunomide is metabolized to teriflunomide, which inhibits de novo pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis. Moreover, the drug inhibits the activity of cyclooxygenase-2 and thus the production of prostaglandin E2. This mechanism may be linked to the development of PAH [59]. Leflunomide has also been linked to the sporadic development of interstitial lung disease in RA patients [60].

Another disease-modifying drug, methotrexate, has antiproliferative effects at high doses and anti-inflammatory effects at lower concentrations through its effects on adenosine metabolism. The use of methotrexate has been linked to pulmonary fibrosis, but most contemporary studies show the opposite effect — inhibition of the inflammatory process reduces the development of pulmonary fibrosis [61]. No study has confirmed the impact of methotrexate on the development of PAH. Methotrexate is also used in proliferative hematopoietic diseases, and the beneficial effects of methotrexate on PH have been described in patients with T-lymphocytic leukemia [62]. Other drugs known to cause PAH are not regularly administered (and should not be administered) in patients with CTD.

Single case reports and uncontrolled clinical observations suggest that immunosuppressive drugs may be combined with drugs used to treat PAH – they seem to work synergistically. Adverse effects of bosentan in SSc patients have been described, including an increase in arthritis as well as an increase in methotrexate hepatotoxicity [63]. This is explained by the inhibitory effect of bosentan on endogenous glucocorticoid secretion. However, it is important to remember that the inflammatory process in SSc patients is revealed only in the early stages of the disease or in overlap syndromes between SSc and other CTDs.

Section summary

• • In patients with CTD complicated by PAH, the underlying disease and PAH should be treated without modifying therapeutic strategy.
• • Increasing the number of drugs used raises the risk of adverse interactions and requires more intensive therapeutic surveillance.
• • The occurrence of PAH reduces the patient’s exercise tolerance, which may require lifestyle changes, avoidance of respiratory infections, and changes in the rehabilitation used.

Summary

Various organs and systems, including the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, may be involved in the course of CTD. One of the complications of CTD that affects the prognosis most heavily is PH. The etiology of PH in patients with CTD is heterogeneous and includes PAH, PH secondary to interstitial lung disease, postcapillary PH secondary to left heart disease, and CTEPH. In addition, several PH mechanisms may coexist in a patient, which significantly complicates diagnosis and treatment. Among CTD patients, PAH occurs most frequently in those with SSc, in whom it affects approximately 8%–12% of patients. PH should be suspected on the basis of clinical symptoms by the rheumatologist or cardiologist caring for the patient. The symptomatic patient should be referred to a cardiology center for diagnosis of PH. In asymptomatic patients with SSc, echocardiography should be considered every year, or in the event of a positive screening test if another screening strategy is used (FVC/DLCO >1.6 and/or NT-proBNP levels > 2 times normal or DETECT algorithm with a post-stage I score of more than 300 points). Clinical suspicion of PH always requires confirmation with right heart catheterization, which also helps to determine the mechanism of PH. Patients with confirmed PAH should be referred to a cardiology referral center for targeted therapy. The care for patients with CTD requires collaboration between the rheumatologist treating the underlying disease and the cardiologist diagnosing and treating PH.

Article information

Conflict of interest: OK-B received fees and/or congress support grants from Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, CSL Behring, Gilead, Inventiva, Janssen-Cilag, Medac, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Sandoz. TM-K received fees and/or congress supports from Bayer, Janssen-Cilag, MSD, AOP Orphan.

Open access: This article is available in open access under Creative Common Attribution-Non-Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license, allowing to download articles and share them with others as long as they credit the authors and the publisher, but without permission to change them in any way or use them commercially. For commercial use, please contact the journal office at kardiologiapolska@ptkardio.pl.

How to cite: Mularek-Kubzdela T, Ciurzyński M, Kowal-Bielecka O, et al. An expert opinion of the Polish Cardiac Society Working Group on Pulmonary Circulation and the Polish Society for Rheumatology on the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension in patients with connective tissue disease. Kardiol Pol. 2021; 79(7–8): 917–929, doi: 10.33963/KP.a2021.0055.

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