Multimedialna platforma wiedzy medycznej Internetowa Księgarnia Medyczna Kalendarium Konferencji
Neurologia i Neurochirurgia Polska
MENU
Shortcuts Submit an article Guide for Authors Special collections Ahead Of Print Reviewers 2023

open access

Vol 55, No 4 (2021)
Invited Review Article
Submitted: 2021-01-24
Accepted: 2021-03-15
Published online: 2021-04-21
View PDF Download PDF file
Get Citation

The assessment of cognitive and behavioural disturbances in vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) — recommendations of an expert working group

Pasquale Calabrese12, Emilia J. Sitek34, Amos D. Korczyn5, Yanhong Dong6, Raquel Manso-Calderón78, Manuel Sierra-Beltrán9, Agnieszka Skrzypkowska10, Elka Stefanova1112
DOI: 10.5603/PJNNS.a2021.0035
·
Pubmed: 34096014
·
Neurol Neurochir Pol 2021;55(4):333-345.
Affiliations
  1. Neuropsychology and Behavioural Neurology Unit, Division of Molecular and Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
  2. Department of Neurology, University Clinic of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
  3. Department of Neurological and Psychiatric Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
  4. Department of Neurology, St Adalbert Hospital, “Copernicus” Ltd., Gdańsk, Poland
  5. Department of Neurology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
  6. Center for Studies of Psychological Application, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
  7. Department of Neurology, Complejo Asistencial Universitario de Salamanca (CAUSA), Salamanca, Spain
  8. Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
  9. Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia Ignacio Chavez, Tlalpan, Mexico
  10. Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
  11. Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
  12. Neurology Clinic, Clinical Center Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia

open access

Vol 55, No 4 (2021)
Invited review articles
Submitted: 2021-01-24
Accepted: 2021-03-15
Published online: 2021-04-21

Abstract

With newer research-based classification systems, the term Vascular Cognitive Impairment (VCI) is now preferred to vascular dementia. VCI is an umbrella term that includes all forms of cognitive deficits ranging from mild cognitive impairment of vascular origin (VaMCI) to vascular dementia (VaD).
The new VCI construct takes into account the fact that in addition to single strategic infarcts, multiple infarcts, and leukoaraiosis, there are other mechanisms of cerebrovascular disease such as chronic hypoperfusion that might account for the pattern of cognitive deficits associated with vascular dementia. The key to defining the spectrum of VCI is neuropsychological testing, bedside or office-based clinical examination, and neuroimaging. The lack of specific cognitive tools that are sufficiently sensitive to detect subtle deficits makes the assessment of cognitive impairment difficult. Prospective cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of VCI from different settings are therefore required.
Although there have been few published reports, behavioural and psychological symptoms (BPS) are inherently present in VCI from the onset and during the course of the disease. Besides the type of population (i.e. clinical, community or nursing-home settings), the definition of VCI/VaD and the instruments used, and differences in the prevalence and pattern of BPS between various studies, could be due to other, often unconsidered, factors such as gender, age, education, use of medication and VCI/VaD severity.

Abstract

With newer research-based classification systems, the term Vascular Cognitive Impairment (VCI) is now preferred to vascular dementia. VCI is an umbrella term that includes all forms of cognitive deficits ranging from mild cognitive impairment of vascular origin (VaMCI) to vascular dementia (VaD).
The new VCI construct takes into account the fact that in addition to single strategic infarcts, multiple infarcts, and leukoaraiosis, there are other mechanisms of cerebrovascular disease such as chronic hypoperfusion that might account for the pattern of cognitive deficits associated with vascular dementia. The key to defining the spectrum of VCI is neuropsychological testing, bedside or office-based clinical examination, and neuroimaging. The lack of specific cognitive tools that are sufficiently sensitive to detect subtle deficits makes the assessment of cognitive impairment difficult. Prospective cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of VCI from different settings are therefore required.
Although there have been few published reports, behavioural and psychological symptoms (BPS) are inherently present in VCI from the onset and during the course of the disease. Besides the type of population (i.e. clinical, community or nursing-home settings), the definition of VCI/VaD and the instruments used, and differences in the prevalence and pattern of BPS between various studies, could be due to other, often unconsidered, factors such as gender, age, education, use of medication and VCI/VaD severity.

Full Text:

View PDF Download PDF file
Get Citation

Keywords

vascular dementia, mild cognitive impairment, stroke, cerebrovascular disorders, cognition, behaviour, dementia, multi-infarct, mixed dementia

About this article
Title

The assessment of cognitive and behavioural disturbances in vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) — recommendations of an expert working group

Journal

Neurologia i Neurochirurgia Polska

Issue

Vol 55, No 4 (2021)

Article type

Invited Review Article

Pages

333-345

Published online

2021-04-21

Page views

1555

Article views/downloads

1315

DOI

10.5603/PJNNS.a2021.0035

Pubmed

34096014

Bibliographic record

Neurol Neurochir Pol 2021;55(4):333-345.

Keywords

vascular dementia
mild cognitive impairment
stroke
cerebrovascular disorders
cognition
behaviour
dementia
multi-infarct
mixed dementia

Authors

Pasquale Calabrese
Emilia J. Sitek
Amos D. Korczyn
Yanhong Dong
Raquel Manso-Calderón
Manuel Sierra-Beltrán
Agnieszka Skrzypkowska
Elka Stefanova

References (100)
  1. O'Brien JT, Erkinjuntti T, Reisberg B, et al. Vascular cognitive impairment. Lancet Neurol. 2003; 2(2): 89–98.
    CrossRefPubMed
  2. Graff-Radford J. Vascular Cognitive Impairment. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2019; 25(1): 147–164.
    CrossRefPubMed
  3. Frantellizzi V, Pani A, Ricci M, et al. Neuroimaging in Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Dementia: A Systematic Review. J Alzheimers Dis. 2020; 73(4): 1279–1294.
    CrossRefPubMed
  4. Carnevale L, Lembo G. Innovative MRI Techniques in Neuroimaging Approaches for Cerebrovascular Diseases and Vascular Cognitive Impairment. Int J Mol Sci. 2019; 20(11).
    CrossRefPubMed
  5. Gorelick PB, Scuteri A, Black SE, et al. American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, and Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia. Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia: a statement for healthcare professionals from the american heart association/american stroke association. Stroke. 2011; 42(9): 2672–2713.
    CrossRefPubMed
  6. Bordet R, Ihl R, Korczyn AD, et al. Towards the concept of disease-modifier in post-stroke or vascular cognitive impairment: a consensus report. BMC Med. 2017; 15(1): 107.
    CrossRefPubMed
  7. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. ; 2017.
  8. World Health Organization. (2018). International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th Revision). https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en.
  9. Chui HC, Victoroff JI, Margolin D, et al. Criteria for the diagnosis of ischemic vascular dementia proposed by the State of California Alzheimer's Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Centers. Neurology. 1992; 42(3 Pt 1): 473–480.
    CrossRefPubMed
  10. Román GC, Tatemichi TK, Erkinjuntti T, et al. Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop. Neurology. 1993; 43(2): 250–260.
    CrossRefPubMed
  11. Sachdev P, Kalaria R, O'Brien J, et al. Internationlal Society for Vascular Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders. Diagnostic criteria for vascular cognitive disorders: a VASCOG statement. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2014; 28(3): 206–218.
    CrossRefPubMed
  12. Sachdev PS, Lipnicki DM, Crawford JD, et al. The Vascular Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders criteria for vascular cognitive disorders: a validation study. Eur J Neurol. 2019; 26(9): 1161–1167.
    CrossRefPubMed
  13. Gladman JT, Corriveau RA, Debette S, et al. Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia: Research consortia that focus on etiology and treatable targets to lessen the burden of dementia worldwide. Alzheimers Dement (N Y). 2019; 5: 789–796.
    CrossRefPubMed
  14. Gupta M, Dasgupta A, Khwaja GA, et al. Behavioural and psychological symptoms in poststroke vascular cognitive impairment. Behav Neurol. 2014; 2014: 430128.
    CrossRefPubMed
  15. Kalaria RN, Maestre GE, Arizaga R, et al. World Federation of Neurology Dementia Research Group. Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia in developing countries: prevalence, management, and risk factors. Lancet Neurol. 2008; 7(9): 812–826.
    CrossRefPubMed
  16. Ruitenberg A, Ott A, van Swieten JC, et al. Incidence of dementia: does gender make a difference? Neurobiol Aging. 2001; 22(4): 575–580.
    CrossRefPubMed
  17. Andersen K, Launer LJ, Dewey ME, et al. Gender differences in the incidence of AD and vascular dementia: The EURODEM Studies. EURODEM Incidence Research Group. Neurology. 1999; 53(9): 1992–1997.
    CrossRefPubMed
  18. Chan KY, Wang W, Wu JJ, et al. Global Health Epidemiology Reference Group (GHERG). Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia in China, 1990-2010: a systematic review and analysis. Lancet. 2013; 381(9882): 2016–2023.
    CrossRefPubMed
  19. Esmael A, Elsherief M, Eltoukhy K. Prevalence of cognitive impairment in acute ischaemic stroke and use of Alberta Stroke Programme Early CT Score (ASPECTS) for early prediction of post-stroke cognitive impairment. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2021 [Epub ahead of print].
    CrossRefPubMed
  20. Rockwood K, Wentzel C, Hachinski V, et al. Prevalence and outcomes of vascular cognitive impairment. Vascular Cognitive Impairment Investigators of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Neurology. 2000; 54(2): 447–451.
    CrossRefPubMed
  21. Rincon F, Wright CB. Vascular cognitive impairment. Curr Opin Neurol. 2013; 26(1): 29–36.
    CrossRefPubMed
  22. Vasquez BP, Zakzanis KK. The neuropsychological profile of vascular cognitive impairment not demented: a meta-analysis. J Neuropsychol. 2015; 9(1): 109–136.
    CrossRefPubMed
  23. Edwards JD, Jacova C, Sepehry AA, et al. A quantitative systematic review of domain-specific cognitive impairment in lacunar stroke. Neurology. 2013; 80(3): 315–322.
    CrossRefPubMed
  24. Andriuta D, Roussel M, Barbay M, et al. Godefroy and GRECogVASC study group. Differentiating between Alzheimer’s disease and vascular cognitive impairment: Is the “memory versus executive function” contrast still relevant? J Alzheimers Dis. 2018; 63(2): 625–33.
  25. Libon D, Price C, Swenson R, et al. Vascular Cognitive Impairment. Neurovascular Neuropsychology. 2009: 75–86.
    CrossRef
  26. Schmahmann JD. Vascular syndromes of the thalamus. Stroke. 2003; 34(9): 2264–2278.
    CrossRefPubMed
  27. Chen Y, Wang A, Tang J, et al. Association of white matter integrity and cognitive functions in patients with subcortical silent lacunar infarcts. Stroke. 2015; 46(4): 1123–1126.
    CrossRefPubMed
  28. Liu X, Cheng R, Chen Li, et al. Alterations of White Matter Integrity in Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Disease with and Without Cognitive Impairment: a TBSS Study. J Mol Neurosci. 2019; 67(4): 595–603.
    CrossRefPubMed
  29. Du J, Wang Y, Zhi N, et al. Structural brain network measures are superior to vascular burden scores in predicting early cognitive impairment in post stroke patients with small vessel disease. Neuroimage Clin. 2019; 22: 101712.
    CrossRefPubMed
  30. Sang L, Liu C, Wang Li, et al. Disrupted Brain Structural Connectivity Network in Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Cognitive Impairment With No Dementia. Front Aging Neurosci. 2020; 12: 6.
    CrossRefPubMed
  31. Chen Qi, Wang Y, Qiu Y, et al. A Deep Learning-Based Model for Classification of Different Subtypes of Subcortical Vascular Cognitive Impairment With FLAIR. Front Neurosci. 2020; 14: 557.
    CrossRefPubMed
  32. Vinciguerra L, Lanza G, Puglisi V, et al. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound in vascular cognitive impairment-no dementia. PLoS One. 2019; 14(4): e0216162.
    CrossRefPubMed
  33. Giorgio A, Di Donato I, De Leucio A, et al. VMCI-Tuscany Study Group. Relevance of brain lesion location for cognition in vascular mild cognitive impairment. Neuroimage Clin. 2019; 22: 101789.
    CrossRefPubMed
  34. Weaver NA, Zhao L, Biesbroek JM, et al. Meta VCI Map consortium. The Meta VCI Map consortium for meta-analyses on strategic lesion locations for vascular cognitive impairment using lesion-symptom mapping: Design and multicenter pilot study. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2019; 11: 310–326.
    CrossRefPubMed
  35. Tales A, Snowden RJ, Haworth J, et al. Abnormal spatial and non-spatial cueing effects in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Neurocase. 2005; 11(1): 85–92.
    CrossRefPubMed
  36. Hachinski V, Iadecola C, Petersen RC, et al. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Canadian Stroke Network vascular cognitive impairment harmonization standards. Stroke. 2006; 37(9): 2220–2241.
    CrossRefPubMed
  37. Barbay M, Taillia H, Nédélec-Ciceri C, et al. GRECOG-VASC Study Group. Prevalence of Poststroke Neurocognitive Disorders Using National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Canadian Stroke Network, VASCOG Criteria (Vascular Behavioral and Cognitive Disorders), and Optimized Criteria of Cognitive Deficit. Stroke. 2018; 49(5): 1141–1147.
    CrossRefPubMed
  38. Pendlebury ST, Mariz J, Bull L, et al. MoCA, ACE-R, and MMSE versus the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke-Canadian Stroke Network Vascular Cognitive Impairment Harmonization Standards Neuropsychological Battery after TIA and stroke. Stroke. 2012; 43(2): 464–469.
    CrossRefPubMed
  39. Arevalo-Rodriguez I, Smailagic N, Roqué I Figuls M, et al. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) for the detection of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015(3): CD010783.
    CrossRefPubMed
  40. Sokołowska N, Sokołowski R, Oleksy E, et al. Usefulness of the Polish versions of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment 7.2 and the Mini-Mental State Examination as screening instruments for the detection of mild neurocognitive disorder. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2020; 54(5): 440–448.
    CrossRefPubMed
  41. Koski L. Validity and applications of the Montreal cognitive assessment for the assessment of vascular cognitive impairment. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2013; 36(1): 6–18.
    CrossRefPubMed
  42. Potocnik J, Ovcar Stante K, Rakusa M. The validity of the Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) for the screening of vascular cognitive impairment after ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol Belg. 2020; 120(3): 681–685.
    CrossRefPubMed
  43. Chan E, Khan S, Oliver R, et al. Underestimation of cognitive impairments by the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in an acute stroke unit population. J Neurol Sci 2014;343(1–2. : 176–9.
  44. Chan E, Altendorff S, Healy C, et al. The test accuracy of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) by stroke lateralisation. J Neurol Sci. 2017; 373: 100–104.
    CrossRefPubMed
  45. Lim JS, Oh MiS, Lee JH, et al. Prediction of post-stroke dementia using NINDS-CSN 5-minute neuropsychology protocol in acute stroke. Int Psychogeriatr. 2017; 29(5): 777–784.
    CrossRefPubMed
  46. Chen X, Wong A, Ye R, et al. Validation of NINDS-CSN neuropsychological battery for vascular cognitive impairment in Chinese stroke patients. BMC Neurol. 2015; 15: 20.
    CrossRefPubMed
  47. Kessler, J., Calabrese, P., Kalbe, E. and Berger. F. DemTect. Ein neues Screening-Verfahren zur Unterstützung der Demenzdiagnostik. Psycho. 2000; 6: 343–347.
  48. Kalbe E, Kessler J, Calabrese P, et al. DemTect: a new, sensitive cognitive screening test to support the diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment and early dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2004; 19(2): 136–143.
    CrossRefPubMed
  49. Wojtyńska R, Szcześniak D. DemTect®--effective to asses MCI and dementia--validation study of the Polish language version. Aging Ment Health. 2016; 20(5): 510–516.
    CrossRefPubMed
  50. Kessler J, Calabrese P, Kalbe E. DemTect-B: ein Äquivalenztest zum kognitiven Screening DemTect-A®. Fortschritte der Neurologie · Psychiatrie. 2010; 78(09): 532–535.
    CrossRef
  51. Kessler J, Fengler S, Kaesberg S, et al. DemTect 40– und DemTect 80+: Neue Auswertungsroutinen für diese Altersgruppen. Fortschritte der Neurologie · Psychiatrie. 2014; 82(11): 640–645.
    CrossRef
  52. Dobbs BM, Schopflocher D. The Introduction of a New Screening Tool for the Identification of Cognitively Impaired Medically At-Risk Drivers: The SIMARD A Modification of the DemTect. J Prim Care Community Health. 2010; 1(2): 119–127.
    CrossRefPubMed
  53. Kalbe E, Calabrese P, Fengler S, et al. DemTect, PANDA, EASY, and MUSIC: cognitive screening tools with age correction and weighting of subtests according to their sensitivity and specificity. J Alzheimers Dis. 2013; 34(4): 813–834.
    CrossRefPubMed
  54. Kalbe E, Calabrese P, Schwalen S, et al. The Rapid Dementia Screening Test (RDST): a new economical tool for detecting possible patients with dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2003; 16(4): 193–199.
    CrossRefPubMed
  55. Brookes RL, Hannesdottir K, Lawrence R, et al. Brief Memory and Executive Test: evaluation of a new screening test for cognitive impairment due to small vessel disease. Age Ageing. 2012; 41(2): 212–218.
    CrossRefPubMed
  56. Ghafar MZ, Miptah HN, O'Caoimh R. Cognitive screening instruments to identify vascular cognitive impairment: A systematic review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2019; 34(8): 1114–1127.
    CrossRefPubMed
  57. Demeyere N, Riddoch MJ, Slavkova ED, et al. The Oxford Cognitive Screen (OCS): validation of a stroke-specific short cognitive screening tool. Psychol Assess. 2015; 27(3): 883–894.
    CrossRefPubMed
  58. Benaim C, Barnay JL, Wauquiez G, et al. The Cognitive Assessment scale for Stroke Patients (CASP) vs. MMSE and MoCA in non-aphasic hemispheric stroke patients. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 2015; 58(2): 78–85.
    CrossRefPubMed
  59. Barnay JL, Wauquiez G, Bonnin-Koang HY, et al. Feasibility of the cognitive assessment scale for stroke patients (CASP) vs. MMSE and MoCA in aphasic left hemispheric stroke patients. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 2014; 57(6-7): 422–435.
    CrossRefPubMed
  60. Tan LP, Herrmann N, Mainland BJ, et al. Can clock drawing differentiate Alzheimer's disease from other dementias? Int Psychogeriatr. 2015; 27(10): 1649–1660.
    CrossRefPubMed
  61. Richards E, Bayer A, Hanley C, et al. Reaction Time and Visible White Matter Lesions in Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Cognitive Impairment. J Alzheimers Dis. 2019; 72(3): 859–865.
    CrossRefPubMed
  62. Skrobot OA, Black SE, Chen C, et al. VICCCS group. Progress toward standardized diagnosis of vascular cognitive impairment: Guidelines from the Vascular Impairment of Cognition Classification Consensus Study. Alzheimers Dement. 2018; 14(3): 280–292.
    CrossRefPubMed
  63. Van Heugten CM, Walton L, Hentschel U. Can we forget the Mini-Mental State Examination? A systematic review of the validity of cognitive screening instruments within one month after stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2015; 29(7): 694–704.
    CrossRefPubMed
  64. Abbate C, Trimarchi PD, Inglese S, et al. Signs and symptoms method in neuropsychology: A preliminary investigation of a standardized clinical interview for assessment of cognitive decline in dementia. Appl Neuropsychol Adult. 2021; 28(3): 282–296.
    CrossRefPubMed
  65. Bickerton WL, Demeyere N, Francis D, et al. The BCoS cognitive profile screen: Utility and predictive value for stroke. Neuropsychology. 2015; 29(4): 638–648.
    CrossRefPubMed
  66. Schmid NS, Ehrensperger MM, Berres M, et al. The Extension of the German CERAD Neuropsychological Assessment Battery with Tests Assessing Subcortical, Executive and Frontal Functions Improves Accuracy in Dementia Diagnosis. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2014; 4(2): 322–334.
    CrossRefPubMed
  67. Korczyn AD. Mixed dementia--the most common cause of dementia. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002; 977: 129–134.
    CrossRefPubMed
  68. Yu L, Boyle PA, Leurgans S, et al. Effect of common neuropathologies on progression of late life cognitive impairment. Neurobiol Aging. 2015; 36(7): 2225–2231.
    CrossRefPubMed
  69. Schneider JA, Bennett DA. Where vascular meets neurodegenerative disease. Stroke. 2010; 41(10 Suppl): S144–S146.
    CrossRefPubMed
  70. Dong Y, Gan DZ, Tay SZ, et al. Patterns of neuropsychological impairment in Alzheimer's disease and mixed dementia. J Neurol Sci. 2013; 333(1-2): 5–8.
    CrossRefPubMed
  71. Boomsma JMF, Exalto LG, Barkhof F, et al. behalf of the TRACE-VCI study group. How Do Different Forms of Vascular Brain Injury Relate to Cognition in a Memory Clinic Population: The TRACE-VCI Study. J Alzheimers Dis. 2019; 68(3): 1273–1286.
    CrossRefPubMed
  72. Chander RJ, Foo H, Yong T, et al. Serial position effects differ between Alzheimer's and vascular features in mild cognitive impairment. Aging (Albany NY). 2018; 10(12): 3866–3880.
    CrossRefPubMed
  73. Ikeda M, Fukuhara R, Shigenobu K, et al. Dementia associated mental and behavioural disturbances in elderly people in the community: findings from the first Nakayama study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004; 75(1): 146–148.
    PubMed
  74. Caputo M, Monastero R, Mariani E, et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in 921 elderly subjects with dementia: a comparison between vascular and neurodegenerative types. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2008; 117(6): 455–464.
    CrossRefPubMed
  75. Srikanth S, Nagaraja AV, Ratnavalli E. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia-frequency, relationship to dementia severity and comparison in Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia and frontotemporal dementia. J Neurol Sci. 2005; 236(1-2): 43–48.
    CrossRefPubMed
  76. Hsieh CJ, Chang CC, Lin CC. Neuropsychiatric profiles of patients with Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia in Taiwan. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009; 24(6): 570–577.
    CrossRefPubMed
  77. Fuh JL, Wang SJ, Cummings JL. Neuropsychiatric profiles in patients with Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005; 76(10): 1337–1341.
    CrossRefPubMed
  78. Fernández-Martínez M, Castro J, Molano A, et al. Prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2008; 5(1): 61–69.
    CrossRefPubMed
  79. Hachinski VC, Iliff LD, Zilhka E, et al. Cerebral blood flow in dementia. Arch Neurol. 1975; 32(9): 632–637.
    CrossRefPubMed
  80. Staekenborg SS, Su T, van Straaten ECW, et al. Behavioural and psychological symptoms in vascular dementia; differences between small- and large-vessel disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010; 81(5): 547–551.
    CrossRefPubMed
  81. Anor CJ, O'Connor S, Saund A, et al. Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Alzheimer Disease, Vascular Dementia, and Mixed Dementia. Neurodegener Dis. 2017; 17(4-5): 127–134.
    CrossRefPubMed
  82. Manso-Calderón R, Cacabelos-Pérez P, Sevillano-García MD, et al. The impact of vascular burden on behavioural and psychological symptoms in older adults with dementia: the BEVASDE study. Neurol Sci. 2020; 41(1): 165–174.
    CrossRefPubMed
  83. Aalten P, Verhey FRJ, Boziki M, et al. Consistency of neuropsychiatric syndromes across dementias: results from the European Alzheimer Disease Consortium. Part II. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2008; 25(1): 1–8.
    CrossRefPubMed
  84. Johnson DK, Watts AS, Chapin BA, et al. Neuropsychiatric profiles in dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2011; 25(4): 326–332.
    CrossRefPubMed
  85. Park JH, Lee SB, Lee TJ, et al. Depression in vascular dementia is quantitatively and qualitatively different from depression in Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2007; 23(2): 67–73.
    CrossRefPubMed
  86. Cummings JL. The Neuropsychiatric Inventory: assessing psychopathology in dementia patients. Neurology. 1997; 48(5 Suppl 6): S10–S16.
    CrossRefPubMed
  87. Aben I, Verhey F, Lousberg R, et al. Validity of the beck depression inventory, hospital anxiety and depression scale, SCL-90, and hamilton depression rating scale as screening instruments for depression in stroke patients. Psychosomatics. 2002; 43(5): 386–393.
    CrossRefPubMed
  88. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001; 16(9): 606–613.
    CrossRefPubMed
  89. Radloff L. The CES-D Scale. Applied Psychological Measurement. 2016; 1(3): 385–401.
    CrossRef
  90. Benaim C, Cailly B, Perennou D, et al. Validation of the aphasic depression rating scale. Stroke. 2004; 35(7): 1692–1696.
    CrossRefPubMed
  91. Turner-Stokes L, Kalmus M, Hirani D, et al. The Depression Intensity Scale Circles (DISCs): a first evaluation of a simple assessment tool for depression in the context of brain injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005; 76(9): 1273–1278.
    CrossRefPubMed
  92. Sagen U, Vik TG, Moum T, et al. Screening for anxiety and depression after stroke: comparison of the hospital anxiety and depression scale and the Montgomery and Asberg depression rating scale. J Psychosom Res. 2009; 67(4): 325–332.
    CrossRefPubMed
  93. Marin RS, Biedrzycki RC, Firinciogullari S. Reliability and validity of the Apathy Evaluation Scale. Psychiatry Res. 1991; 38(2): 143–162.
    CrossRefPubMed
  94. Douven E, Köhler S, Schievink SHJ, et al. Baseline Vascular Cognitive Impairment Predicts the Course of Apathetic Symptoms After Stroke: The CASPER Study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2018; 26(3): 291–300.
    CrossRefPubMed
  95. Kim JM, Lyons D, Shin IS, et al. Differences in the behavioral and psychological symptoms between Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: are the different pharmacologic treatment strategies justifiable? Hum Psychopharmacol. 2003; 18(3): 215–220.
    CrossRefPubMed
  96. Kaufer DI, Cummings JL, Christine D, et al. Assessing the impact of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: the Neuropsychiatric Inventory Caregiver Distress Scale. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1998; 46(2): 210–215.
    CrossRefPubMed
  97. Zarit SH, Reever KE, Bach-Peterson J. Relatives of the impaired elderly: correlates of feelings of burden. Gerontologist. 1980; 20(6): 649–655.
    CrossRefPubMed
  98. Salvadori E, Poggesi A, Pracucci G, et al. VMCI-Tuscany Study Group. Application of the DSM-5 Criteria for Major Neurocognitive Disorder to Vascular MCI Patients. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra. 2018; 8(1): 104–116.
    CrossRefPubMed
  99. Molad J, Hallevi H, Korczyn AD, et al. Vascular and Neurodegenerative Markers for the Prediction of Post-Stroke Cognitive Impairment: Results from the TABASCO Study. J Alzheimers Dis. 2019; 70(3): 889–898.
    CrossRefPubMed
  100. McFall A, Hietamies TM, Bernard A, et al. UK consensus on pre-clinical vascular cognitive impairment functional outcomes assessment: Questionnaire and workshop proceedings. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2020; 40(7): 1402–1414.
    CrossRefPubMed

Regulations

Important: This website uses cookies. More >>

The cookies allow us to identify your computer and find out details about your last visit. They remembering whether you've visited the site before, so that you remain logged in - or to help us work out how many new website visitors we get each month. Most internet browsers accept cookies automatically, but you can change the settings of your browser to erase cookies or prevent automatic acceptance if you prefer.

By VM Media Group sp. z o.o., ul. Świętokrzyska 73, 80–180 Gdańsk, Poland
tel.:+48 58 320 94 94, fax:+48 58 320 94 60, e-mail: viamedica@viamedica.pl