English Polski
Vol 25, No 4 (2019)
Guidelines
Published online: 2019-10-03

open access

Page views 2749
Article views/downloads 1487
Get Citation

Connect on Social Media

Connect on Social Media

Recommendations for the management of lower extremity artery disease (LEAD) based on ESVS/ /ESC 2017 guidelines. Position document of PTChN, PTNT, PTLR and SFSN PTK experts

Arkadiusz Jawień, Krzysztof J. Filipiak, Andrzej Bręborowicz, Beata Mrozikiewicz-Rakowska, Filip M. Szymański, Piotr Terlecki, Tomasz Zubilewicz
Acta Angiologica 2019;25(4):219-269.

Abstract

Not available

Article available in PDF format

View PDF Download PDF file

References

  1. Hirsch AT, Criqui MH, Treat-Jacobson D, et al. Peripheral arterial disease detection, awareness, and treatment in primary care. JAMA. 2001; 286(11): 1317–1324.
  2. Fowkes FG, Aboyans V, Fowkes FJI, et al. Peripheral artery disease: epidemiology and global perspectives. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2017; 14(3): 156–170.
  3. Diehm C, Schuster A, Allenberg J, et al. High prevalence of peripheral arterial disease and co-morbidity in 6880 primary care patients: cross-sectional study. Atherosclerosis. 2004; 172(1): 95–105.
  4. Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, et al. TASC II Working Group. Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II). J Vasc Surg. 2007; 45 Suppl S: S5–67.
  5. Hooi JD, Kester AD, Stoffers HE, et al. Incidence of and risk factors for asymptomatic peripheral arterial occlusive disease: a longitudinal study. Am J Epidemiol. 2001; 153(7): 666–672.
  6. Sampson UKA, Norman PE, Fowkes FG, et al. Global and regional burden of aortic dissection and aneurysms: mortality trends in 21 world regions, 1990 to 2010. Glob Heart. 2014; 9(1): 171–180.e10.
  7. Criqui MH, Aboyans V. Epidemiology of peripheral artery disease. Circ Res. 2015; 116(9): 1509–1526.
  8. Joosten MM, Pai JK, Bertoia ML, et al. Associations between conventional cardiovascular risk factors and risk of peripheral artery disease in men. JAMA. 2012; 308(16): 1660–1667.
  9. Garg PK, Biggs ML, Carnethon M, et al. Metabolic syndrome and risk of incident peripheral artery disease: the cardiovascular health study. Hypertension. 2014; 63(2): 413–419.
  10. Jude EB, Oyibo SO, Chalmers N, et al. Peripheral arterial disease in diabetic and nondiabetic patients: a comparison of severity and outcome. Diabetes Care. 2001; 24(8): 1433–1437.
  11. Emdin CA, Anderson SG, Callender T, et al. Usual blood pressure, peripheral arterial disease, and vascular risk: cohort study of 4.2 million adults. BMJ. 2015; 351: h4865.
  12. Howard DPJ, Banerjee A, Fairhead JF, et al. Oxford Vascular Study. Population-Based Study of Incidence, Risk Factors, Outcome, and Prognosis of Ischemic Peripheral Arterial Events: Implications for Prevention. Circulation. 2015; 132(19): 1805–1815.
  13. Newman AB, Siscovick DS, Manolio TA, et al. Ankle-arm index as a marker of atherosclerosis in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Cardiovascular Heart Study (CHS) Collaborative Research Group. Circulation. 1993; 88(3): 837–845.
  14. Meijer WT, Grobbee DE, Hunink MG, et al. Determinants of peripheral arterial disease in the elderly: the Rotterdam study. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160(19): 2934–2938.
  15. Allison MA, Criqui MH, McClelland RL, et al. The effect of novel cardiovascular risk factors on the ethnic-specific odds for peripheral arterial disease in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 48(6): 1190–1197.
  16. Ridker PM, Stampfer MJ, Rifai N. Novel risk factors for systemic atherosclerosis: a comparison of C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, homocysteine, lipoprotein(a), and standard cholesterol screening as predictors of peripheral arterial disease. JAMA. 2001; 285(19): 2481–2485.
  17. Laschkolnig A, Kollerits B, Lamina C, et al. Lipoprotein (a) concentrations, apolipoprotein (a) phenotypes, and peripheral arterial disease in three independent cohorts. Cardiovasc Res. 2014; 103(1): 28–36.
  18. Aboyans V, Criqui MH, Denenberg JO, et al. Risk factors for progression of peripheral arterial disease in large and small vessels. Circulation. 2006; 113(22): 2623–2629.
  19. Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, et al. TASC II Working Group. Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2007; 33 Suppl 1: S1–75.
  20. Nowak KL, Rossman MJ, Chonchol M, et al. Strategies for Achieving Healthy Vascular Aging. Hypertension. 2018; 71(3): 389–402.
  21. Zhu C, Yu Yi, Montani JP, et al. Arginase-I enhances vascular endothelial inflammation and senescence through eNOS-uncoupling. BMC Res Notes. 2017; 10(1): 82.
  22. Voghel G, Thorin-Trescases N, Farhat N, et al. Chronic treatment with N-acetyl-cystein delays cellular senescence in endothelial cells isolated from a subgroup of atherosclerotic patients. Mech Ageing Dev. 2008; 129(5): 261–270.
  23. Yi B, Nguyen MC, Won MH, et al. Arginase Inhibitor 2,3,5,4'-Tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-D-Glucoside Activates Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase and Improves Vascular Function. Planta Med. 2017; 83(3-04): 210–216.
  24. Tsuboi T, Maeda M, Hayashi T. Administration of L-arginine plus L-citrulline or L-citrulline alone successfully retarded endothelial senescence. PLoS One. 2018; 13(2): e0192252.
  25. Sosińska-Zawierucha P, Maćkowiak B, Staniszewski R, et al. Sulodexide Slows Down the Senescence of Aortic Endothelial Cells Exposed to Serum from Patients with Peripheral Artery Diseases. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2018; 45(6): 2225–2232.
  26. Li T, Liu X, Zhao Z, et al. Sulodexide recovers endothelial function through reconstructing glycocalyx in the balloon-injury rat carotid artery model. Oncotarget. 2017; 8(53): 91350–91361.
  27. Ciszewicz M, Polubinska A, Antoniewicz A, et al. Sulodexide suppresses inflammation in human endothelial cells and prevents glucose cytotoxicity. Transl Res. 2009; 153(3): 118–123.
  28. Hassanshahi A, Hassanshahi M, Khabbazi S, et al. Adipose-derived stem cells for wound healing. J Cell Physiol. 2019; 234(6): 7903–7914.
  29. Fowkes FGR, Murray GD, Butcher I, et al. Ankle Brachial Index Collaboration. Ankle brachial index combined with Framingham Risk Score to predict cardiovascular events and mortality: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008; 300(2): 197–208.
  30. Weitz JI, Byrne J, Clagett GP, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arterial insufficiency of the lower extremities: a critical review. Circulation. 1996; 94(11): 3026–3049.
  31. Fowkes FGR, Murray GD, Butcher I, et al. Ankle Brachial Index Collaboration. Ankle brachial index combined with Framingham Risk Score to predict cardiovascular events and mortality: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008; 300(2): 197–208.
  32. Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR, et al. American Association for Vascular Surgery, Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines, American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Society for Vascular Nursing, TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus, Vascular Disease Foundation. ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): executive summary a collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, and the ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease) endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; Society for Vascular Nursing; TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus; and Vascular Disease Foundation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 47(6): 1239–1312.
  33. Gerhard-Herman MD, Gornik HL, Barrett C, et al. 2016 AHA/ACC Guideline on the Management of Patients With Lower Extremity Peripheral Artery Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017; 69(11): e71–e7e126.
  34. Khan NA, Rahim SA, Anand SS, et al. Does the clinical examination predict lower extremity peripheral arterial disease? JAMA. 2006; 295(5): 536–546.
  35. Da Silva A. Occlusive peripheral arterial disease. Early diagnosis, incidence, course, significance. 1980;25:1-97. 1980.
  36. Aboyans V, Ricco JB, Bartelink MLEL, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group . 2017 ESC Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Peripheral Arterial Diseases, in collaboration with the European Society for Vascular Surgery (ESVS): Document covering atherosclerotic disease of extracranial carotid and vertebral, mesenteric, renal, upper and lower extremity arteriesEndorsed by: the European Stroke Organization (ESO)The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Peripheral Arterial Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and of the European Society for Vascular Surgery (ESVS). Eur Heart J. 2018; 39(9): 763–816.
  37. Perk J, De Backer G, Gohlke H, et al. European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR), ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG). European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (version 2012). The Fifth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of nine societies and by invited experts). Eur Heart J. 2012; 33(13): 1635–1701.
  38. Pan Zw, Lu Yj, Yang Bf. MicroRNAs: a novel class of potential therapeutic targets for cardiovascular diseases. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2010; 31(1): 1–9.
  39. Fic P, Kowalczuk K, Grabarska A, et al. [MicroRNA--a new diagnostic tool in coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction]. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2014; 68: 410–418.
  40. Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, et al. TASC II Working Group. Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2007; 33 Suppl 1: S1–75.
  41. Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S, Sidawy AN, Beckman JA, Findeiss LK, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA Focused Update of the Guideline for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Artery Disease (Updating the 2005 Guideline). Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2011;58(19):2020-45. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.08.023.
  42. Tendera M, Aboyans V, Bartelink ML, et al. European Stroke Organisation, ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of peripheral artery diseases: Document covering atherosclerotic disease of extracranial carotid and vertebral, mesenteric, renal, upper and lower extremity arteries: the Task Force on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Peripheral Artery Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2011; 32(22): 2851–2906.
  43. Conte MS, Pomposelli FB, Clair DG, et al. Society for Vascular Surgery Lower Extremity Guidelines Writing Group, Society for Vascular Surgery. Society for Vascular Surgery practice guidelines for atherosclerotic occlusive disease of the lower extremities: management of asymptomatic disease and claudication. J Vasc Surg. 2015; 61(3 Suppl): 2S–41S.
  44. Halliday A, Bax JJ. The 2017 ESC Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Peripheral Arterial Diseases, in Collaboration With the European Society for Vascular Surgery (ESVS). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2018; 55(3): 301–302.
  45. Zheng ZJ, Sharrett AR, Chambless LE, et al. Associations of ankle-brachial index with clinical coronary heart disease, stroke and preclinical carotid and popliteal atherosclerosis: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Atherosclerosis. 1997; 131(1): 115–125.
  46. Vriens B, D'Abate F, Ozdemir BA, et al. Members of the National Foot Care Audit Steering Group, American Diabetes Association. Peripheral arterial disease in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003; 26(12): 3333–3341.
  47. 2011 WRITING GROUP MEMBERS, 2005 WRITING COMMITTEE MEMBERS, ACCF/AHA TASK FORCE MEMBERS. 2011 ACCF/AHA Focused Update of the Guideline for the Management of patients with peripheral artery disease (Updating the 2005 Guideline): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines. Circulation. 2011; 124(18): 2020–2045.
  48. Tehan PE, Santos D, Chuter VH. A systematic review of the sensitivity and specificity of the toe-brachial index for detecting peripheral artery disease. Vasc Med. 2016; 21(4): 382–389.
  49. Christensen CLP. Core Curriculum for Vascular Nursing: An Official Publication of the Society for Vascular Nursing (SVN). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2014;2nd ed. : Philadelphia.
  50. Rose S. Noninvasive Vascular Laboratory for Evaluation of Peripheral Arterial Occlusive Disease: Part II—Clinical Applications: Chronic, Usually Atherosclerotic, Lower Extremity Ischemia. Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology. 2000; 11(10): 1257–1275.
  51. Nicolaï SPA, Kruidenier LM, Rouwet EV, et al. The walking impairment questionnaire: an effective tool to assess the effect of treatment in patients with intermittent claudication. J Vasc Surg. 2009; 50(1): 89–94.
  52. Aly S, Sommerville K, Adiseshiah M, et al. Comparison of duplex imaging and arteriography in the evaluation of lower limb arteries. Br J Surg. 1998; 85(8): 1099–1102.
  53. Visser K, Hunink MG. Peripheral arterial disease: gadolinium-enhanced MR angiography versus color-guided duplex US--a meta-analysis. Radiology. 2000; 216(1): 67–77.
  54. Li Z, Zheng Z, Ding J, et al. Contrast-enhanced Ultrasonography for Monitoring Arterial Inflammation in Takayasu Arteritis. J Rheumatol. 2019; 46(6): 616–622.
  55. Ouwendijk R, Kock MC, van Dijk LC, et al. Vessel wall calcifications at multi-detector row CT angiography in patients with peripheral arterial disease: effect on clinical utility and clinical predictors. Radiology. 2006; 241(2): 603–608.
  56. Langenberger H, Schillinger M, Plank C, et al. Agreement of duplex ultrasonography vs. computed tomography angiography for evaluation of native and in-stent SFA re-stenosis--findings from a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Radiol. 2012; 81(9): 2265–2269.
  57. Met R, Bipat S, Legemate DA, et al. Diagnostic performance of computed tomography angiography in peripheral arterial disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2009; 301(4): 415–424.
  58. Collins R, Burch J, Cranny G, et al. A systematic review of duplex ultrasound, magnetic resonance angiography and computed tomography angiography for the diagnosis and assessment of symptomatic, lower limb peripheral arterial disease. Health Technol Assess. 2007; 11(20): iii–iv, xi.
  59. Stegemann E, Sansone R, Heiss C. Carbon Dioxide Angiography Is a Standard Technique to Supplement Iodinated Contrast Angiography and Can Be a Feasible Alternative. Angiology. 2016; 67(10): 974.
  60. Jawahar D, Rachamalla HR, Rafalowski A, et al. Pulse oximetry in the evaluation of peripheral vascular disease. Angiology. 1997; 48(8): 721–724.
  61. Comerota AJ, Throm RC, Kelly P, et al. Tissue (muscle) oxygen saturation (StO2): a new measure of symptomatic lower-extremity arterial disease. J Vasc Surg. 2003; 38(4): 724–729.
  62. Cassar K, Coull R, Bachoo P, et al. Management of secondary risk factors in patients with intermittent claudication. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2003; 26(3): 262–266.
  63. McDermott MM, Mehta S, Ahn H, et al. Atherosclerotic risk factors are less intensively treated in patients with peripheral arterial disease than in patients with coronary artery disease. J Gen Intern Med. 1997; 12(4): 209–215.
  64. Fowkes FG, Housley E, Riemersma RA, et al. Smoking, lipids, glucose intolerance, and blood pressure as risk factors for peripheral atherosclerosis compared with ischemic heart disease in the Edinburgh Artery Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1992; 135(4): 331–340.
  65. Kannel WB, McGee DL. Update on some epidemiologic features of intermittent claudication: the Framingham Study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1985; 33(1): 13–18.
  66. Törnwall ME, Virtamo J, Haukka JK, et al. Prospective study of diet, lifestyle, and intermittent claudication in male smokers. Am J Epidemiol. 2000; 151(9): 892–901.
  67. Wiseman S, Powell J, Greenhalgh R, et al. The influence of smoking and plasma factors on prosthetic graft patency. Eur J Vasc Surg. 1990; 4(1): 57–61.
  68. Housley E, Leng GC, Donnan PT, et al. Physical activity and risk of peripheral arterial disease in the general population: Edinburgh Artery Study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1993; 47(6): 475–480.
  69. Piepoli MF, Davos C, Francis DP, et al. ExTraMATCH Collaborative. Exercise training meta-analysis of trials in patients with chronic heart failure (ExTraMATCH). BMJ. 2004; 328(7433): 189.
  70. Regensteiner JG, Ware JE, McCarthy WJ, et al. Effect of cilostazol on treadmill walking, community-based walking ability, and health-related quality of life in patients with intermittent claudication due to peripheral arterial disease: meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002; 50(12): 1939–1946.
  71. Singh RB, Dubnov G, Niaz MA, et al. Effect of an Indo-Mediterranean diet on progression of coronary artery disease in high risk patients (Indo-Mediterranean Diet Heart Study): a randomised single-blind trial. Lancet. 2002; 360(9344): 1455–1461.
  72. Trichopoulou A, Costacou T, Bamia C, et al. Adherence to a Mediterranean diet and survival in a Greek population. N Engl J Med. 2003; 348(26): 2599–2608.
  73. Thompson PD, Zimet R, Forbes WP, et al. Meta-analysis of results from eight randomized, placebo-controlled trials on the effect of cilostazol on patients with intermittent claudication. Am J Cardiol. 2002; 90(12): 1314–1319.
  74. Stevens JW, Simpson E, Harnan S, et al. Systematic review of the efficacy of cilostazol, naftidrofuryl oxalate and pentoxifylline for the treatment of intermittent claudication. Br J Surg. 2012; 99(12): 1630–1638.
  75. Mannello F, Medda V, Ligi D, et al. Glycosaminoglycan Sulodexide Inhibition of MMP-9 Gelatinase Secretion and Activity: Possible Pharmacological Role Against Collagen Degradation in Vascular Chronic Diseases. Current Vascular Pharmacology. 2013; 11(3): 354–365.
  76. Mannello F, Raffetto JD. Matrix metalloproteinase activity and glycosaminoglycans in chronic venous disease: the linkage among cell biology, pathology and translational research. Am J Transl Res. 2011;3(2):149-58. Epub 2011/03/19. PubMed PMID: 21416057; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3056561.
  77. Mattana P, Mannello F, Ferrari P, et al. Vascular pathologies and inflammation: The anti-inflammatory properties of sulodexide. Italian Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2012; 19: 1–7.
  78. Połubińska A, Staniszewski R, Baum E, et al. Sulodexide modifies intravascular homeostasis what affects function of the endothelium. Adv Med Sci. 2013; 58(2): 304–310.
  79. Sosińska P, Baum E, Maćkowiak B, et al. Sulodexide Reduces the Proinflammatory Effect of Serum from Patients with Peripheral Artery Disease in Human Arterial Endothelial Cells. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2016; 40(5): 1005–1012.
  80. Suminska-Jasinska K, Polubinska A, Ciszewicz M, et al. Sulodexide reduces senescence-related changes in human endothelial cells. Med Sci Monit. 2011; 17(4): CR222–CR226.
  81. Bręborowicz A. Sulodexide—mixture of glycosaminoglycans with the protective effect towards the vascular endothelium. Acta Angiologica. 2014; 20(3): 112–8.
  82. Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C, Bueno H, Geersing G-J, Harjola V-P, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS) The Task Force for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European heart journal. 2019.
  83. Tomkowski W, Kuca P, Urbanek T, et al. Żylna choroba zakrzepowo-zatorowa—wytyczne profilaktyki, diagnostyki i terapii Konsensus Polski 2017. Acta Angiologica. 2017; 23(2): 73–113.
  84. Nicolaides A, Kakkos S, Baekgaard N, et al. Management of chronic venous disorders of the lower limbs. Guidelines According to Scientific Evidence. Part I. Int Angiol. 2018; 37(3): 181–254.
  85. Coccheri S, Scondotto G, Agnelli G, et al. Arterial Arm of the Suavis (Sulodexide Arterial Venous Italian Study) group. Sulodexide in the treatment of intermittent claudication. Results of a randomized, double-blind, multicentre, placebo-controlled study. Eur Heart J. 2002; 23(13): 1057–1065.
  86. Gaddi A, Galetti C, Illuminati B, et al. Meta-analysis of some results of clinical trials on sulodexide therapy in peripheral occlusive arterial disease. J Int Med Res. 1996; 24(5): 389–406.
  87. Piepoli MF, Hoes AW, Agewall S, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group. 2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: The Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts)Developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR). Eur Heart J. 2016; 37(29): 2315–2381.
  88. Szymański FM ea. Recommendation for the management of dyslipidemia in Poland — Third Declaration of Sopot. Interdisciplinary Expert Position Statement endorsed by the Polish Cardiac Society Working Group on Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy. Choroby Serca i Naczyń. 2018;15(4):199–210. 2018.
  89. Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, Agabiti Rosei E, Azizi M, Burnier M, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. European heart journal. 2018;39(33):3021-104.
  90. Cosentino F, Grant PJ, Aboyans V, Bailey CJ, Ceriello A, Delgado V, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASDThe Task Force for diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). European Heart Journal. 2019.
  91. Mach F, Baigent C, Catapano AL, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group . 2019 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: lipid modification to reduce cardiovascular risk. Eur Heart J. 2019 [Epub ahead of print].
  92. Smith SL, Matthews EO, Moxon JV, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of risk factors for and incidence of 30-day readmission after revascularization for peripheral artery disease. J Vasc Surg. 2019; 70(3): 996–1006.e7.
  93. Eliason JL, Wainess RM, Proctor MC, et al. A national and single institutional experience in the contemporary treatment of acute lower extremity ischemia. Ann Surg. 2003; 238(3): 382–9; discussion 389.
  94. Earnshaw JJ, Whitman B, Foy C. National Audit of Thrombolysis for Acute Leg Ischemia (NATALI): clinical factors associated with early outcome. J Vasc Surg. 2004; 39(5): 1018–1025.
  95. Blaisdell FW, Steele M, Allen RE. Management of acute lower extremity arterial ischemia due to embolism and thrombosis. Surgery. 1978; 84(6): 822–834.
  96. Rutherford RB. Clinical staging of acute limb ischemia as the basis for choice of revascularization method: when and how to intervene. Semin Vasc Surg. 2009; 22(1): 5–9.
  97. van den Berg JC. Thrombolysis for acute arterial occlusion. J Vasc Surg. 2010; 52(2): 512–515.
  98. Comerota AJ, Gravett MH. Do randomized trials of thrombolysis versus open revascularization still apply to current management: what has changed? Semin Vasc Surg. 2009; 22(1): 41–46.
  99. Sarac TP, Hilleman D, Arko FR, et al. Clinical and economic evaluation of the trellis thrombectomy device for arterial occlusions: preliminary analysis. J Vasc Surg. 2004; 39(3): 556–559.
  100. Rogers JH, Laird JR. Overview of new technologies for lower extremity revascularization. Circulation. 2007; 116(18): 2072–2085.
  101. Henke PK. Contemporary management of acute limb ischemia: factors associated with amputation and in-hospital mortality. Semin Vasc Surg. 2009; 22(1): 34–40.
  102. Lee K, Istl A, Dubois L, et al. Fibrinogen Level and Bleeding Risk During Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis Using Tissue Plasminogen Activator. Vasc Endovascular Surg. 2015; 49(7): 175–179.
  103. Kuoppala M, Åkeson J, Svensson P, et al. Risk factors for haemorrhage during local intra-arterial thrombolysis for lower limb ischaemia. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2011; 31(2): 226–232.
  104. Agle SC, McNally MM, Powell CS, et al. The association of periprocedural hypertension and adverse outcomes in patients undergoing catheter-directed thrombolysis. Ann Vasc Surg. 2010; 24(5): 609–614.
  105. Patel NH, Krishnamurthy VN, Kim S, et al. CIRSE and SIR Standards of Practice Committees. Quality improvement guidelines for percutaneous management of acute lower-extremity ischemia. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2013; 24(1): 3–15.
  106. O'Connell JB, Quiñones-Baldrich WJ. Proper evaluation and management of acute embolic versus thrombotic limb ischemia. Semin Vasc Surg. 2009; 22(1): 10–16.
  107. Edlich RF, Rodeheaver G, Thacker J, Edgerton M. Fundamentals of Wound Management in Surgery, Technical Factors In Wound Management. South Plainfield, NJ: Chirurgecom. 1977;22.
  108. Gerhard-Herman MD, Gornik HL, Barrett C, et al. 2016 AHA/ACC Guideline on the Management of Patients With Lower Extremity Peripheral Artery Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017; 69(11): e71–e7e126.
  109. Weir GR, Smart H, van Marle J, et al. Arterial disease ulcers, part 2: treatment. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2014; 27(10): 462–76; quiz 476.
  110. Weir GR, Smart H, van Marle J, et al. Arterial disease ulcers, part 1: clinical diagnosis and investigation. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2014; 27(9): 421–8; quiz 429.
  111. Arnold M, Barbul A. Nutrition and wound healing. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006; 117(7 Suppl): 42S–58S.
  112. Kummer O, Widmer MK, Plüss S, et al. Does infection affect amputation rate in chronic critical leg ischemia? Vasa. 2003; 32(1): 18–21.
  113. Morcos R, Louka B, Tseng A, et al. The Evolving Treatment of Peripheral Arterial Disease through Guideline-Directed Recommendations. J Clin Med. 2018; 7(1).
  114. Committee BCPNSaW. Guideline:Assessmnet and Treatment of Lower Leg Ulcers (Arterial, Venous &Mixed)in Adults. 2014.
  115. Hopf HW, Ueno C, Aslam R, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of arterial insufficiency ulcers. Wound Repair Regen. 2006; 14(6): 693–710.
  116. Robless P, Mikhailidis DP, Stansby GP, et al. Cilostazol for peripheral arterial disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007(1): CD003748.
  117. Momsen AH, Jensen MB, Norager CB, et al. Drug therapy for improving walking distance in intermittent claudication: a systematic review and meta-analysis of robust randomised controlled studies. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2009; 38(4): 463–474.
  118. Bedenis R, Stewart M, Cleanthis M, et al. Cilostazol for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014(10): CD003748.
  119. Salhiyyah K, Senanayake E, Abdel-Hadi M, et al. Pentoxifylline for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; 1: CD005262.
  120. Lee D, Lim LA, Jang SB, et al. Pharmacokinetic comparison of sustained- and immediate-release oral formulations of cilostazol in healthy Korean subjects: a randomized, open-label, 3-part, sequential, 2-period, crossover, single-dose, food-effect, and multiple-dose study. Clin Ther. 2011; 33(12): 2038–2053.
  121. Shalhoub J, Davies AH, Franklin IJ. Cilostazol may improve outcome in critical limb ischemia. Int Angiol. 2009; 28(5): 363–366.
  122. de Backer TLM, Vander Stichele R, Lehert P, et al. Naftidrofuryl for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; 12: CD001368.
  123. Spengel F, Clément D, Boccalon H, et al. Findings of the Naftidrofuryl in Quality of Life (NIQOL) European study program. Int Angiol. 2002; 21(1): 20–27.
  124. CAPRIE Steering Committee. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE Steering Committee. Lancet. 1996; 348(9038): 1329–1339.
  125. Anand SS, Bosch J, Eikelboom JW, Connolly SJ, Diaz R, Widimsky P, et al. Rivaroxaban with or without aspirin in patients with stable peripheral or carotid artery disease: an international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet. 2018;391(10117):219-29. 2018.
  126. Bhatt DL, Fox KAA, Hacke W, et al. CHARISMA Investigators. Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354(16): 1706–1717.
  127. Eikelboom JW, Connolly SJ, Bosch J, Dagenais GR, Hart RG, Shestakovska O, et al. Rivaroxaban with or without aspirin in stable cardiovascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 2017;377(14):1319-30. 2017.
  128. Bonaca MP, Bhatt DL, Storey RF, et al. Ticagrelor for Prevention of Ischemic Events After Myocardial Infarction in Patients With Peripheral Artery Disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016; 67(23): 2719–2728.
  129. Cacoub PP, Bhatt DL, Steg PG, et al. CHARISMA Investigators. Patients with peripheral arterial disease in the CHARISMA trial. Eur Heart J. 2009; 30(2): 192–201.
  130. Patel MR, Becker RC, Wojdyla DM, et al. Cardiovascular events in acute coronary syndrome patients with peripheral arterial disease treated with ticagrelor compared with clopidogrel: Data from the PLATO Trial. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2015; 22(6): 734–742.
  131. Mohler ER, Hiatt WR, Creager MA. Cholesterol reduction with atorvastatin improves walking distance in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Circulation. 2003; 108(12): 1481–1486.
  132. Mondillo S, Piercarlo B, Barbati R. Effects of simvastatin on walking performance and symptoms of intermittent claudication in hypercholesterolemic patients with peripheral vascular disease. ACC Current Journal Review. 2003;12(4):16. doi: 10.1016/s1062-1458(03)00264-2. 2003.
  133. Murphy TP, Cutlip DE, Regensteiner JG, Mohler ER, Cohen DJ, Reynolds MR, et al. Supervised exercise, stent revascularization, or medical therapy for claudication due to aortoiliac peripheral artery disease: the CLEVER study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2015;65(10):999-1009. 2015.
  134. Tiozzo R, Cingi MR, Pietrangelo A, et al. Effect of heparin-like compounds on the in vitro proliferation and protein synthesis of various cell types. Arzneimittelforschung. 1989; 39(1): 15–20.
  135. Rajtar G, Marchi E, de Gaetano G, et al. Effects of glycosaminoglycans on platelet and leucocyte function: role of N-sulfation. Biochem Pharmacol. 1993; 46(5): 958–960.
  136. Borawski J, Dubowski M, Pawlak K, et al. Effect of sulodexide on plasma transforming growth factor-beta1 in healthy volunteers. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2010; 16(1): 60–65.
  137. Połubińska A, Staniszewski R, Baum E, et al. Sulodexide modifies intravascular homeostasis what affects function of the endothelium. Adv Med Sci. 2013; 58(2): 304–310.
  138. Vietto V, Franco JVa, Saenz V, et al. Prostanoids for critical limb ischaemia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018; 1: CD006544.
  139. Hiatt WR, Regensteiner JG, Creager MA. Propionyl-L-carnitine improves exercise performance and functional status in patients with claudication. ACC Current Journal Review. 2001;10(6):32-3. doi: 10.1016/s1062-1458(01)00467-6. 2001.
  140. Drexler H, Zeiher AM, Meinzer K, et al. Correction of endothelial dysfunction in coronary microcirculation of hypercholesterolaemic patients by L-arginine. Lancet. 1991; 338(8782-8783): 1546–1550.
  141. Kawano H, Motoyama T, Hirai N, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemia is improved by L-arginine administration: possible role of oxidative stress. Atherosclerosis. 2002; 161(2): 375–380.
  142. Jabłecka A, Bogdański P, Balcer N, et al. The effect of oral L-arginine supplementation on fasting glucose, HbA1c, nitric oxide and total antioxidant status in diabetic patients with atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease of lower extremities. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2012; 16(3): 342–350.
  143. Jabłecka A, Checiński P, Krauss H, et al. The influence of two different doses of L-arginine oral supplementation on nitric oxide (NO) concentration and total antioxidant status (TAS) in atherosclerotic patients. Med Sci Monit. 2004; 10(1): CR29–CR32.
  144. Wilson A, Harada R, Nair N, et al. l -Arginine Supplementation in Peripheral Arterial Disease. Circulation. 2007; 116(2): 188–195.
  145. Shahin Y, Cockcroft JR, Chetter IC. Randomized clinical trial of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, in patients with intermittent claudication. Br J Surg. 2013; 100(9): 1154–1163.
  146. Vlachopoulos C, Terentes-Printzios D, Aboyans V, et al. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and walking distance: Have we walked the whole distance? Atherosclerosis. 2016; 252: 199–200.
  147. Nicolaï SPA, Kruidenier LM, Bendermacher BLW, et al. Ginkgo biloba for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009; 39(2): CD006888–158.
  148. Stewart M, Morling JR, Maxwell H, et al. Padma 28 for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 3(7): CD007371.